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Posted on July 17, 2012 by Working Point Team
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ScienceDaily (July 17, 2012) ? Long before humankind invented silicon-based solar cells, nature had already found a way to use silica to harness the power of the sun -- in the form of algae. Researchers at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology are using diatoms and other single-celled algae as templates for developing tomorrow's solar cells.
Algae shells are perfectly constructed to exploit sunlight -- a characteristic that has not been unnoticed by researchers from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). These researchers now think that the answer to our need for clean, cheap energy is quite possibly bobbing around in the ocean -- because algae may prove to be both suitable models and raw materials for future solar cells.
"We believe it is possible to produce solar cells that use sunlight as well as algae do," says Gabriella Tranell, an NTNU researcher in charge of an interdisciplinary project where material scientists, biotechnologists, biologists and chemists at NTNU and SINTEF, Scandinavia's largest independent research organization, are working together to persuade algae to surrender their secrets.
World champions of light
Algae can range from single-celled species to seaweed that is several metres long. Of the 200 families and 100 000 species, most live in salt water, while some live in fresh water and some on land. Algae actually make up the bulk of Earth's biomass.
Like plants, algae get their energy from photosynthesis -- the process in which energy from sunlight is used to convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds. Algae are nature's most successful organisms in terms of exploiting sunlight. They are significantly more efficient than today's silicon solar cells, which at best can absorb only about 30 per cent of the sunlight that reaches Earth. The rest is reflected back or creates excess heat.
A good, efficient solar cell should have a surface that lets in a lot of -- preferably all -- light, combined with an effective anti-reflective coating that ensures that the light does not escape again -- which is exactly how algae function.
Wonder shells
An alga's big secret lies in its shell. The single-celled diatoms are among the algae with the most suitable shells, made of glass with small pores, and with symmetrical complex patterns that allow light to flow into the tiny organism -- without letting it escape.
The shells are built from within by the algae as they absorb silicon ions from seawater. Diatoms vary in size from a few to several hundred micrometres in diameter, with pores that measure from 10 to 50 nanometres. Some of the layers of the shell are held together by hexagonal cylinders with very light, thin walls. This is a form that is familiar from beehives, and is known to be very strong.
"Biologists have several hypotheses about why and how algae build their shells from the inside the way that they do. It may be a way for algae to improve their ability to absorb sunlight; they need to be able to float well; the structure makes them stable in the water; they gain certain mechanical properties and they can easily attach themselves to things," explains Tranell.
"It's probably a combination of all of these factors. Algae shells are nevertheless functional. Nutrients in the ocean are transported through the pores. Meanwhile, the pores are small and protected by a membrane so that dirt cannot enter the organism," said Tranell.
Gold copy There are about 10 000 species of diatoms. Researchers have initially selected specific species to find the best shell structures. These different species have grand names, such as Thalassiosira pseudonana, Chaetoceros muelleri, Pinnularia sp. and Coscinodiscus wailesii. This last has proven to be very good in terms of its shell structure, but it is also difficult to grow.
The researchers use nanotechnology to copy natural algal shells with the optimal structure, meaning the right optical properties. Shell models can be made out of various materials, including precious metals. Gold is a flexible material suitable for making moulds of algal shells. An electron beam electrifies a lump containing gold. The heat warms up the gold, which causes gold atoms to form a thin film on the surface of the shell. The thin gold layer can be removed using a copper tape. Researchers now have a negative of the diatom's shell, a replicate in gold.
Computer simulation
"The gold replica can be used as a model that we test and simulate with the optical software on our computers. These simulations describe reality very well. The results we have from the simulations are therefore promising," says Tranell.
The simulations involve varying the structure of the shells, including the size of the pores and the shape of the various layers and components. They are designed to describe nature's symmetry, with the six-sided shape and other patterns. Then, researchers can learn how the light is broken up by the structure, and at what angle the light enters it. The structure determines how the light is reflected and used within the shell.
It is also possible to construct a perfect model and then look for the model in nature. The researchers will try this later.
To find algae that may be suitable for use in nanotechnology and materials for solar cells, the researchers examined the literature written by 19th century British gentlemen -- noblemen with time and money to devote to research, and who were fascinated by algae, which they classified in thick volumes. Today's scientists were able to find several types of algae with different shell structures that might work.
Self-organization One of the interesting challenges facing researchers is to get the algal shells to lie the same way on a surface. To achieve this, they have to manipulate the shells themselves.
"The point is to fully exploit the rich and complex nanostructure of the shells. We have to make sure that entire surface where we have the algal shells is covered by the shells without them overlapping," explains Julien Romann, who works in materials technology.
First the algae are washed in acid to remove all organic material. Acid washing can also be used to deliberately change the patterns and structures of the shells.
Romann says that a good way to get a flat, single layer of very pure algal shells on a surface is to create an attraction between the shells and the surface. Algal shells made of silicon are slightly negatively charged. When the surface they are on has a slightly positive charge, it creates static electricity, which enables the shells and the surface to interact well. The method is theoretically promising, and the researchers have started testing the approach now.
Another method is to use liquids. Water and chloroform are a good combination. Chloroform is denser than water and the two liquids do not mix -- water floats on top.
"Gravity makes the algal shells sink slightly into the water. The shells sediment out and accumulate before they reach the interface between the water and chloroform. A dense film of algal shells forms naturally and can then be applied to a positively charged surface that has been prepared in advance," says Romann.
Demanding algae
Biotechnologist Matilde Skogen Chauton works in a laboratory that grows algae, and says that they need a lot of energy to build their complex shells.
"Their shells have to be light, so that the algae do not sink into the sea. At the same time the shells have to be strong enough to protect the algae from grazing by predators, and the movement of the water," she says. "The algae shells can be compared to the glass flasks and beakers that we use in the laboratory that have been specially created to withstand heat and chemicals."
Diatoms need silicate to build their shells. Silicate is made up of silicon and other elements. Algae take up silicate and another very useful material, titanium oxide, in much the same way. Titanium oxide is transparent and has excellent conductive properties. Thin layers of titanium oxide on a solar cell can therefore improve its efficiency.
"We get the algae to take up titanium in their shells when we add titanium while we 'starve' the algae of silicate," says Chauton.
It takes huge amounts of seawater to get enough algae for solar cell production.
Varying biological activity in the ocean also makes natural seawater unstable to work with. An alternative is to use common aquarium salt added to distilled water. Scientists are now trying to offer different mixtures of nutrients to the algae, in order to control the way the algae construct their shells: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, phosphorus, zinc, vitamins and trace elements.
"Some types of algae are demanding. Others are not so demanding. We cannot touch or feel the algae, but they are different," says Chauton.
But when?
When can we begin to produce solar cells using algal shells and nanotechnology? Gabriella Tranell is careful not to predict, but she has faith in nature's ingenious solutions.
"In ten years, solar cells will be far different than today, both in design and materials. I think we will be making solar cells that are copies of biological structures. We need to think differently if we want to produce clean renewable energy that is also economic. Solar panels are now designed so that they move smoothly to track the Sun as it goes across the sky, from east to west. But maybe we should be looking at the way leaves are arranged on trees: they are not symmetrically oriented towards the light at any time, but are turned in slightly different directions."
"We see that it is more and more of interest to imitate nature, to learn how nature has made structures that are functional. Inspired by nature!" And then, Gabriella Tranell smiles like the Sun.
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Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/07/120717100117.htm
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(RNS) The long-smoldering debate at the U.S. Air Force Academy over the role of religion in cadets' lives has reignited, just as a new class arrives on campus for basic training.
Accusations of improper proselytizing on the Colorado Springs, Colo., campus have been challenged by those who argue that AFA guidelines curtail religious expression.
The two sides recently clashed over a letter from 66 House Republicans urging Defense Secretary Leon Panetta to investigate the USAF's growing "hostility toward religious freedom" under guidelines set last September by USAF Chief of Staff Gen. Norton Schwartz.
In response to allegations of proselytizing, Schwarz mandated that only chaplains could endorse religious programs.
But the congressional letter argues that the new policy goes too far.
"While we agree that leaders should not use their positions to impose their religious beliefs or extend preferential treatment to those who share their beliefs, the decisions that have been made in reliance upon this policy go beyond what is required by the U.S. Constitution," the letter reads.
The Chaplain Alliance for Religious Liberty, a conservative Christian organization representing evangelical chaplains, applauded the letter.
"There's nothing wrong with a commander attending, even publicizing and encouraging ... a good and positive event for the morale and the welfare of military personnel," said executive director and retired Col. Ron Crews, a former chaplain with 28 years of military experience.
"There's nothing wrong with a commander saying, 'This is an event that I support and I am going to.' You're encouraged to go, but you are not ordered to go," he said.
But David Mullin, a former AFA economics professor, said military culture muddies the distinction between encouragement and orders, so only chaplains should speak on religious matters.
"When a military commander says 'you are encouraged to attend,' whether it is to military officers or civilians, that is an effective order," Mullin said. This constitutes improper proselytism, he added.
A self-described evangelical, Mullin is one of the few to openly criticize what he calls an unhealthy religious climate in the AFA. He is represented in court by the Military Religious Freedom Foundation, a legal watchdog.
Mullin was one of five academy professors who sued unsuccessfully in January 2011 to stop a school prayer luncheon that would feature as keynote speaker a veteran who calls himself a "U.S. Marine for Christ."
He alleges his dog was poisoned after he protested about the school's religious climate later that year.
Mullin suggests part of the problem stems from the AFA's Colorado Springs location. The city hosts many evangelical parachurch organizations, such as James Dobson's Focus on the Family, as well as New Life Church, an evangelical church founded by its former pastor Ted Haggard.
He added that some of these groups have access to the academy, including cards that get them into dorms.
"You have very strong encouragement -- basically carte blanche access to cadets by the leadership of the academy by these groups," Mullin said. "It is corruption, and there is substantial religious discrimination as part of this corruption," he said.
The AFA has long struggled with setting boundaries for religious expression.
In 2004 a team of Yale Divinity School students and professors found "challenges to pluralism" at the academy. A memo expressed "concern that the overwhelmingly evangelical tone of general Protestant worship encouraged religious divisions rather than fostering understanding among basic cadets."
An internal AFA investigative panel in 2005 found religious "insensitivity," but not "overt religious discrimination."
Still, the Air Force that year issued guidelines that banned some public prayers and discouraged public discussion of religious belief by commanders and enlisted personnel. A 2006 revision relaxed the guidelines somewhat by allowing personal religious discussions that are not coercive.
A 2010 survey found 41 percent of non-Christian cadets faced unwanted proselytizing, even as the religious majority felt that their freedom of speech was being infringed upon.
This is bad for cadets and bad for the country, says Mikey Weinstein, a 1977 academy graduate and founder of MRFF.
The congressional letter, he said, is part of a larger cultural battle to hold personal Christian rights over civil rights. "It's just another example of the level of stupidity and unbridled fundamentalist Christian cancer," he said.
MRFF has 362 clients at the AFA, triple those at the Army and Navy academies, according to Weinstein. He claims 35 families from the incoming class have already contacted him, though no suits have been filed.
Crews said Weinstein's message is misguided, and that the Constitution protects the right to evangelize in ways that are not belligerent or coercive.
"As I understand, Mikey Weinstein's interpretation of the First Amendment is that we have freedom from religion instead of freedom of religion." Crews said. "Just because someone puts on the uniform does not mean that they give up their God-given, constitutionally protected religious liberties."
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Source: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/17/air-force-academy-religion-proselytism_n_1678092.html
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Motorola won't have had much of a break following the dismissal of a key Apple lawsuit, after all. In a low-profile move, Fujifilm has sued Motorola for allegedly violating four particularly broad patents on camera and phone technologies -- we're talking basics such as transmitting data outside of a cellular network. The camera designer has supposedly been pushing for a licensing deal since April of last year without much success, and it's asserting that "at least" a wide swath of Motorola devices released both before and after that time are the key offenders, including the RAZR MAXX and Xyboard lines. The complaint is scarcely into the docket and makes it difficult to gauge just what kind of chance Fujifilm has to win in court; we just know that Motorola's (and now Google's) patent lawsuit headache is developing into more of a migraine.
Filed under: Cellphones, Digital Cameras
Fujifilm sues Motorola over broad camera and phone patents, claims RAZRs and Xyboards are at fault originally appeared on Engadget on Sun, 15 Jul 2012 12:57:00 EDT. Please see our terms for use of feeds.
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We have many options available including loan amounts up to 2,000,000. Depending on the situation points and fees will change accordingly.? For more information give us a call or send us an email. We look forward to the opportunity to serve you.? Mention the BLOG for these extra savings.
| Last Update: | Saturday, July 14,? 2012 | Broker /Origination Fee: | 0.000% |
| Lock Period: | 30 days | Loan Amount: | $300,000 |
Call for lower and alternative rates for your unique situation
30 Year Fixed Jumbo above $625,500
4.250% APR 4.302%
30 Year Fixed Jumbo lower than $625,500
3.625% APR 3.786%
15 Year Fixed Jumbo lower than $625,500
3.250% APR 3.354%
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3.365% APR 3.395%
Please Read the Following:
Rates, points and programs cannot be guaranteed on this web site because rates, fees, APR, and other costs are subject to individual borrower's credit score, loan-to-value, loan purpose, loan amount, and rapid fluctuations in market conditions.
Maximum Loan amount for a conforming loan is $417,000. Loan amounts in excess of $417,000 are considered Jumbo Conforming Loans in most Counties. Rates and APR's are based on amounts of $300,000 for Conforming Loans and $625,500 for Jumbo Conforming Loans. This is not an advertisement for credit as defined by paragraph 226.24 of regulation Z.
Source: http://yourrealestatelife.com/blog/2012/07/14/41-mortgage-rates
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| Native name | ?????? ?????? ?????????Jomh?r?-ye Esl?m?-ye Af??nist?n(Persian)? ????????? ?????? ???????Da Af??nist?n Isl?m? Jomhoriyat(Pashto) |
|---|---|
| Conventional long name | Islamic Republic of Afghanistan |
| Common name | Afghanistan |
| Image coat | Coat of arms of Afghanistan.svg |
| Symbol type | Emblem |
| National anthem | Afghan National Anthem |
| Official languages | Dari (Persian)Pashto |
| Demonym | Afghan |
| Capital | Kabul |
| Largest city | Kabul |
| Government type | Islamic republic |
| Leader title1 | President |
| Leader title2 | Vice President |
| Leader name1 | Hamid Karzai |
| Leader name2 | Mohammed Fahim |
| Leader title3 | Vice President |
| Leader name3 | Karim Khalili |
| Leader title4 | Chief Justice |
| Leader name4 | Abdul Salam Azimi |
| Legislature | National Assembly |
| Upper house | House of Elders |
| Lower house | House of the People |
| Area rank | 41st |
| Area magnitude | 1_E11 |
| Area km2 | 647500 |
| Area sq mi | 251772 |
| Percent water | negligible |
| Population estimate | 29,835,392 |
| Population estimate year | 2011 |
| Population estimate rank | 42nd |
| Population census | 15.5 million |
| Population census year | 1979 |
| Population density km2 | 43.5 |
| Population density sq mi | 111.8 |
| Population density rank | 150th |
| Gdp ppp year | 2011 |
| Gdp ppp | $29.731 billion |
| Gdp ppp per capita | $956 |
| Gdp nominal year | 2011 |
| Gdp nominal | $18.181 billion |
| Gdp nominal per capita | $585 |
| Hdi year | 2011 |
| Hdi | 0.398 |
| Hdi rank | 172nd |
| Hdi category | low |
| Gini | 29 |
| Gini year | 2008 |
| Gini category | low |
| Fsi | 102.3 2.5 |
| Fsi year | 2007 |
| Fsi rank | 8th |
| Fsi category | Alert |
| Sovereignty type | Establishment |
| Established event1 | First Afghan state |
| Established date1 | October 1747 |
| Established event2 | Independence (from the United Kingdom) |
| Established date2 | August 19, 1919 |
| Currency | Afghani |
| Currency code | AFN |
| Country code | AFG |
| Time zone | D? |
| Utc offset | +4:30 |
| Drives on | right |
| Cctld | .af |
| Calling code | +93 |
| Footnote1 | }} |
Afghanistan (Persian/Pashto: , Af??nist?n), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming part of Central Asia, South Asia, and Greater Middle East, it is also considered to be part of a broader West Asia. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.
Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as 50,000 BC. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BC. Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the land has been home to various peoples through the ages and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. The land also served as a source from which the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals and many others have risen to form major empires.
The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan begins in 1709 with the rise of the Pashtuns, when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani's rise to power in 1747. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game" between the British and Russian empires. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War of 1919 and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi, King Amanullah started modernization of the country. During the Cold War, after the withdrawal of the British from neighboring India in 1947, the United States and the Soviet Union began spreading their influence in Afghanistan. Between 1979 and 1989, the country experienced a major war between the US-backed mujahideen forces and the Soviet-backed Afghan government in which over a million Afghans lost their lives mainly due to land-mines. This was followed by the 1990s Afghan civil war, the rise and fall of the extremist Taliban government and the 2001?present war. In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to help maintain security in Afghanistan and assist the Karzai administration.
The decades of war made Afghanistan the world's most dangerous country, including the largest producer of refugees and asylum seekers. While the international community is rebuilding war-torn Afghanistan, terrorist groups such as the Haqqani Network and Hezbi Islami are actively involved in a nationwide Taliban-led insurgency, which includes hundreds of assassinations and suicide attacks. According to the United Nations, the insurgents were responsible for 75% of civilian casualties in 2010 and 80% in 2011.
Al-Biruni referred to them in the 11th century as various tribes living on the western frontier mountains of the Indus River, which would be the Sulaiman Mountains. Ibn Battuta, a famous Moroccan scholar visiting the region in 1333, writes: "We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen. Their principle mountain is called Kuh Sulayman."
One prominent 16th century Persian scholar explains extensively about the Afghans. For example, he writes:
It is widely accepted that the terms "Pashtun" and Afghan are synonyms. In the writings of the 17th-century Pashto poet Khushal Khan Khattak it is mentioned:
The last part of the name, -st?n is a Persian suffix for "place", prominent in many languages of the region. The name "Afghanistan" is described by the 16th century Mughal Emperor Babur in his memoirs as well as by the later Persian scholar Firishta and Babur's descendants, referring to the traditional ethnic Afghan (Pashtun) territories between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Indus River. In the early 19th century, Afghan politicians decided to adopt the name Afghanistan for the entire Afghan Empire after its English translation had already appeared in various treaties with Qajarid Persia and British India. In 1857, in his review of J.W. Kaye's The Afghan War, Friedrich Engels describes "Afghanistan" as:
The Afghan kingdom was sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Kabul, as mentioned by the British statesman and historian Mountstuart Elphinstone. Afghanistan was officially recognized as a sovereign state by the international community after the signing of the 1919 Treaty of Rawalpindi.
Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. Aside from the usual rain falls, Afghanistan receives snow during winter in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and streams. However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. The state needs more than to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.
The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year. They can be deadly and destructive sometimes, causing landslides in some parts or avalanche during winter. The last strong earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan. This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people of various regional countries were killed and over 1,000 injured. The 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured and more than 2,000 houses destroyed.
The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite, gold, zinc, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum among other things. In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the US Geological Survey are worth between and .
At , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country, slightly bigger than France and smaller than Burma, about the size of Texas in the United States. It borders Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far east.
Afghanistan is at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and often fought. It has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, the Islamic Empire and the Sassanid Empire.
Many kingdoms have also risen to power in what is now Afghanistan, such as the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Hephthalites, Kabul Shahis, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Kartids, Timurids, Mughals, and finally the Hotaki and Durrani dynasties that marked the political origins of the modern state of Afghanistan.
After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia moved south into the boundaries of modern Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further south to India, west to what is now Iran, and towards Europe via the area north of the Caspian. The region was called Ariana.
The ancient Zoroastrianism religion is believed by some to have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and 800 BCE, as its founder Zoroaster is thought to have lived and died in Balkh. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages may have been spoken in the region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenid Persians overthrew the Medians and incorporated Afghanistan (Arachosia, Aria and Bactria) within its boundaries. An inscription on the tombstone of King Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries he had conquered.
Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army arrived in the area of Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the area until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the Indian Maurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty.|Strabo|64 BC ? 24 AD}} The Mauryans brought Buddhism from India and controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until about 185 BCE when they were overthrown. Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest of the region by the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away from the Greco-Bactrians and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE.
During the 1st century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region, but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid to late 1st century CE the vast Kushan Empire, centered in modern Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture. The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE. Although various rulers calling themselves Kushanshas (generally known as the Indo-Sassanids) continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the Sassanids.
The late Kushans were followed by the Kidarite Huns who, in turn, were replaced by the short-lived but powerful Hephthalites, as rulers in the first half of the 5th century. The Hephthalites were defeated by Khosrau I in CE 557, who re-established Sassanid power in Persia. However, in the 6th century CE, the successors to the Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty in Kabulistan called Kabul Shahi.
Afghanistan became one of the main centers in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. By the 11th century the Ghaznavids had finally Islamized all of the remaining non-Muslim areas, with the exception of the Kafiristan region. They were replaced by the Ghurids who expanded and advanced the already powerful empire. In 1219 AD, Genghis Khan and his Mongol barbarians overran the region. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khorasanian cities of Herat and Balkh. The destruction caused by the Mongols depopulated major cities and forced many of the locals to revert to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khilji dynasty controlled the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush, until the invasion of Timur who established the Timurid dynasty in 1370. During the Ghaznavid, Ghurid, and Timurid eras, Afghanistan produced many fine Islamic architectural monuments as well as numerous scientific and literary works.
Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, arrived from Central Asia and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty, and from there he began to seize control of the central and eastern territories of Afghanistan. He remained in Kabulistan until 1526 when he and his army invaded Delhi in India to replace the Afghan Lodi dynasty with the Mughal Empire. From the 16th century to the early 18th century, Afghanistan was part of three regional kingdoms: the Khanate of Bukhara in north, the Shi'a Safavids in the west and the remaining larger area was ruled by the Mughal Empire.
In 1738, Nader Shah and his Afsharid forces captured Kandahar from Shah Hussain Hotaki, at which point the incarcerated 16 year old Ahmad Shah Durrani was freed and made the commander of Nader Shah's four thousand Abdali Afghans. From Kandahar they set out to conquer India, passing through Ghazni, Kabul, Lahore and ultimately plundering Delhi after the Battle of Karnal. Nader Shah and his army abandoned Delhi but took with them huge treasure, which included the Koh-i-Noor and Darya-ye Noor diamonds. After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, the Afghans chose Ahmad Shah Durrani as their head of state. Regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan, Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India. He defeated the Sikhs of the Maratha Empire in the Punjab region nine times, one of the biggest battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat.
In October 1772, Ahmad Shah Durrani died of a natural cause and was buried at a site now adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar. He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani, who transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776. After Timur Shah's death in 1793, the Durrani throne was passed down to his son Zaman Shah followed by Mahmud Shah, Shuja Shah and others.
The Afghan Empire was under threat in the early 19th century by the Sikhs in the east and the Persians in the west. The western provinces of Khorasan and Kohistan were taken by the Persians in 1800. The biggest blow to Afghans came on 13 July 1813, when the Vizier of Afghanistan Fateh Khan and his brother Dost Mohammad Khan came face to face with Sikh armies in the Battle of Attock. The Sikh armies as usual were led by their famous Hindu General Dewan Mokham Chand who was 70 years old at that time. The battle saw the gruesome massacre of Afghan armies; over 9,000 Afghan soldiers laid their lives in this battle. Dost Mohammad Khan saved himself with great difficulty, whereas Vizier Fateh Khan fled back even before the Afghans were defeated. The defeat created a sensation in Kabul, the capital of the Durrani Empire; the defeat of the Wazir of Afghanistan by Mohkam Chand roused fear in Afghans that Sikhs may now march upon Kabul. However the grand victory of Sikh armies coincided with the Holy Festival of Diwali which is celebrated by Hindu, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists which resulted in the return of victorious Sikh armies and their famous Hindu General Mohkam Chand back to Lahore. This defeat ended the Afghans' dream of regaining Panjab and instead push Afghans on more defensive approach. After this defeat, Afghans mostly fought defensive battles. Another Hindu General Misr Diwan Chand plundered Afghan general Jabbar Khan in Kashmir in 1819 which saw the end of Muslim rule over Kashmir (1339?1819).In 1823 Misr Diwan Chand Commander In Chief of Sikh Empire fought a battle at Naushera(Near Peshawar) in which he routed the Sultan of Afghanistan Dost Mohammad Khan and his brother Azim Khan. The defeat of Afghans at Naushera ended the rule of Afghans in Peshawar and Sikhs started collecting tribute from Peshawar until 1834 when Sikhs permanently annexed it to their Empire. After this victory Misr Diwan Chand intents were to capture Khyber Pass from Afghans and then to make a full fledge invasions of Major Afghanistan cities of Kabul,Kandahar,Ghazni etc. however Misr Diwan Chand fell ill after this battle and remained on bed until 1825 when finally he dies because of cholera in Lahore, he died at an young age of 39 and this also left his ultimate dream of Capturing whole of Afghanistan from Kabul to Herat unaccomplished.
The Sikhs of Punjab, under Ranjit Singh, invaded Afghanistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region and in 1834 captured its second capital, Peshawar. The regions of Multan, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan were also lost. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the Afghan Empire. After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until 1826 when Dost Mohammad Khan rose to power. In 1837, Akbar Khan and the Afghan army crossed the Khyber Pass to defeat the Sikhs at the Battle of Jamrud, killing Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa . However, the arrival of the Sikh army under Wazir Dhyan Singh Dogra and his elder brother Maharaja Gulab Singh in the vicinity of Jamrud didn't allow the Afghans to occupy the Jamrud fort. Akbar Khan and his Afghan army fled back to Kabul. By this time the British were advancing to the area from the east and the First Anglo-Afghan War, one of the first major conflicts during the The Great Game, was initiated.
After the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, King Amanullah Khan declared Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community and, following a 1927?28 tour of Europe and Turkey, introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution (declared through a loya jirga), which made elementary education compulsory.
Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to rebel forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in November 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernisation but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a Hazara school student.
Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud Khan sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in World War II, nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports and other vital infrastructure. By the late 1960s, many Western travelers were using these as part of the hippie trail. In 1973, while King Zahir Shah was on an official overseas visit, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan.
As part of its Cold War strategy, the United States strengthened its political ties with Pakistan. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began using Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) as a proxy network to finance and arm the multi-national Mujahideen fighters inside Pakistan, which was designed to prevent the Soviet Union from reaching the oil-rich Persian Gulf through Balochistan. In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin took over as Prime Minister of Afghanistan, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming Vice-President of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained the president and in control of the army until he was killed in September 1979.
To bolster the Parcham faction and as part of its Cold War strategy to ultimately reach Gwadar in Balochistan, the Soviet Union decided to invade Afghanistan in December 1979 by sending 100,000 soldiers of the Red Army to its southern neighbor. In the meantime, Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal. The US State Department "worked hard to dissuade the Soviets from invading." After the invasion, President Jimmy Carter announced what became known as the Carter Doctrine: that the U.S. would not allow any other outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf. Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghan refugees.
US National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski, known for his hardline policies on the Soviet Union, initiated in 1979 a campaign supporting mujaheddin in Pakistan and Afghanistan, which was run by Pakistani security services with financial support from the CIA and Britain's MI6. This policy had the explicit aim of promoting radical Islamist and anti-Communist forces. Bob Gates, in his book Out Of The Shadows, wrote that Pakistan had been pressuring the United States for arms to aid the rebels for years, but that the Carter administration refused in the hope of finding a diplomatic solution to avoid war. Brzezinski seemed to have been in favor of the provision of arms to the rebels, while Cyrus Vance's Department of State, seeking a peaceful settlement, publicly accused Brzezinski of seeking to "revive" the Cold War. Brzezinski has stated that the United States provided communications equipment and limited financial aid to the mujahideen prior to the "formal" invasion, but only in response to the Soviet deployment of forces to Afghanistan and the 1978 coup, and with the intention of preventing further Soviet encroachment in the region.
The Reagan administration increased arming and funding of the mujahideen as part of the Reagan Doctrine, thanks in large part to the efforts of Charlie Wilson and CIA officer Gust Avrakotos. Early reports estimated $6?20 billion but more recent reports suggest that up to $40 billion were provided by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia to Pakistan. This was in the forms of cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles. The money and weapons were directly given to Pakistani Armed Forces, which was distributed by its ISI network to various mujahideen groups although much of it was secretly kept for Pakistan's own defense and other purposes. Despite receiving only minor aid compared to leaders of other Mujahideen groups, Ahmad Shah Massoud was named "the Afghan who won the Cold War" by The Wall Street Journal.
The 10-year Soviet war resulted in the deaths of over 1 million Afghans, mostly civilians and due to land-mines. About 6million fled to Pakistan and Iran, and from there tens of thousands began emigrating to the European Union, United States, Australia and other parts of the world. Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties, the Soviets withdrew in 1989 but continued to support Afghan President Mohammad Najibullah until 1992.
After the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992, the Afghan political parties agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement (the Peshawar Accords). The accords created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period to be followed by general elections. According to Human Rights Watch: Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, financial and military support from Pakistan. Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal concludes in Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival: In addition, Saudi Arabia and Iran ? as competitors for regional hegemony ? supported Afghan militias hostile towards each other. According to Human Rights Watch, Iran was backing the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari to "maximize Wahdat's military power and influence". Saudi Arabia supported the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction.}} Conflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war.
Due to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project. Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders. For civilians there was little security from murder, rape and extortion. When the Taliban took control of the city in 1994, they forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders. The Islamic State government took steps to restore law and order. Courts started to work again. Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process but they refused as they did not believe in a democratic system.
According to a 55-page report by the United Nations, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians. UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001 and that "[t]hese have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the [Taliban] Ministry of Defense or to Mullah Omar himself." The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia religious or Hazara ethnic background. Upon taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, 4,000?6,000 civilians were killed by the Taliban and many more reported tortured. The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings. Bin Laden's so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians. The report by the UN quotes "eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people".
Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf ? then as Chief of Army Staff ? was responsible for sending thousands of Pakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and bin Laden against the forces of Massoud. According to Pakistani Afghanistan expert Ahmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan" on the side of the Taliban. In 2001 alone, there were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals, many either from the Frontier Corps or army, fighting inside Afghanistan. An estimated 8,000 Pakistani militants were recruited in madrassas filling the ranks of the estimated 25,000 regular Taliban force. Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join the fight against the United Front. 3,000 fighters of the regular Taliban army were Arab and Central Asian militants. Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for the forces under direct control of Massoud for the period from October 1996 until the assassination of Massoud in September 2001. As a consequence many civilians fled to the area of Ahmad Shah Massoud. In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban. (see video) National Geographic concluded in its documentary "Inside the Taliban": : In early 2001 Massoud addressed the European Parliament in Brussels asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan. He stated that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and bin Laden the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year. On this visit to Europe he also warned that his intelligence had gathered information about a large-scale attack on U.S. soil being imminent.
While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, more coalition troops entered the escalating US-led war. Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002. The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture. NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well its national police. ISAF and Afghan troops led many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court. After U.S. President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, Der Spiegel published images of the US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians.
At the 2010 International Conference on Afghanistan in London, Afghan President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar). Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to initiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes. Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. Abdullah Abdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progess in the field of human rights especially women's rights. Dr. Abdullah stated: :"I should say that Taliban are not fighting to be accommodated. They are fighting to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ... There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, I don't think that we have a way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such. Then we have to be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; provided, we create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also not realistic at this stage."
Over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were forcefully deported from NATO countries. This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Pakistani-backed Taliban insurgency. According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011. In 2011 a record 3,021 civilians were killed in the ongoing insurgency, the fifth successive annual rise. }} After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmed Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others. Also in the same year, the Pak-Afghan border skirmishes intensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani Network took place across Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. The U.S. blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistan Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this. |Admiral Mike Mullen|Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff}} U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani Network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop." Other top U.S. officials such as Hillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements. On 16 October 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani Network in south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier".
In anticipation of the 2014 NATO withdrawal and a subsequent expected push to regain power by the Taliban, the anti-Taliban United Front (Northern Alliance) groups have started to regroup under the umbrella of the National Coalition of Afghanistan (political arm) and the National Front of Afghanistan (military arm).
The government of Afghanistan is an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, executive, legislative and judicial. The nation is currently led by the Karzai administration with Hamid Karzai as the President and leader since late 2001. The National Assembly is the legislature, a bicameral body having two chambers, the House of the People and the House of Elders.
The Supreme Court is led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been a legal advisor to the president. The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous one, which was dominated by fundamentalist religious figures such as Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari who issued several controversial rulings, including seeking to place a limit on the rights of women.
According to Transparency International's corruption perceptions index 2010 results, Afghanistan was ranked as the third most-corrupt country in the world. A January 2010 report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime revealed that bribery consumes an amount equal to 23 % of the GDP of the nation. A number of government ministries are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating that "individuals who are involved in corruption will have no place in the government", top government officials were busy stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the Kabul Bank. Although the nation's institutions are newly formed and steps have been taken to arrest some, the United States warned that aid to Afghanistan would be reduced to very little if the corruption is not stopped.
Two months later, under international pressure, a second round run-off vote between Karzai and remaining challenger Abdullah was announced, but a few days later Abdullah announced that he is not participating in the 7 November run-off because his demands for changes in the electoral commission had not been met. The next day, officials of the election commission cancelled the run-off and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another 5-year term.
In the 2005 parliamentary election, among the elected officials were former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists, warlords, communists, reformists, and several Taliban associates. In the same period, Afghanistan reached to the 30th nation in terms of female representation in parliament. The last parliamentary election was held in September 2010, but due to disputes and investigation of fraud, the sworn in ceremony took place in late January 2011. After the issuance of computerized ID cards for the first time, which is a $101 million project that the Afghan government plans to start in 2012, it is expected to help prevent major fraud in future elections and improve the security situation.
The provincial governors are appointed by the President of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils which are elected through direct and general elections for a period of four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions.
According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. As for the capital city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of Afghanistan.
The following is a list of all the 34 provinces of Afghanistan in alphabetical order and on the right is a map showing where each province is located:
The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established in 2002 under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401 to help the nation recover from decades of war and establish a normal functioning government. Today, more than 22 NATO nations deploy about 140,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). Apart from close military links, Afghanistan also enjoys strong economic relations with NATO members and their allies.
Afghanistan also has diplomatic relations with neighboring Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, the People's Republic of China, including regional states such as India, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Russia, United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Japan, South Korea, and others. Afghanistan's relationship with Pakistan has often fluctuated since 1947. They have cultural, security and economic links with each other but disputes between the two states remain. Afghanistan continues to reject the porous and poorly marked Durrand Line as its international border with Pakistan, and has repeatedly accused Pakistan of supporting the Taliban insurgents, Haqqani Network, and other anti-Afghanistan terrorist groups. Economically, Afghanistan is highly dependent on Pakistan in terms of imports, supplies and trade routes. Conversely, Pakistan considers Afghanistan as an important trade route for access to Central Asian resources.
Pakistan harbors concerns over the growing influence of its rival India in Afghanistan. Relations between the two states were strained further after recent border skirmishes. Afghan officials allege that Pakistani intelligence agencies are involved in terrorist attacks inside Afghanistan. Pakistan has denied supporting the Taliban and claimed that a stable Afghanistan is in its interest.
India and Iran have actively participated in reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan, with India being the largest regional donor to the country. Since 2002, India has pledged up to $2 billion in economic assistance to Afghanistan and has participated in multiple socio-economic reconstruction efforts, including power, roads, agricultural and educational projects. There are also military ties between Afghanistan and India, which is expected to increase after the October 2011 strategic pact that was signed by President Karzai and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.
The military of Afghanistan is under the Ministry of Defense, which includes the Afghan National Army and the Afghan Air Force. It currently has about 180,000 active soldiers and is expected to reach 260,000 in the coming years. They are trained and equipped by NATO countries, mainly by the United States Department of Defense. The ANA is divided into 7 major Corps, with the 201st Selab ("Flood") in Kabul being the main one. The ANA also has a commando brigade which was established in 2007. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan serves as the main educational institute for the militarymen of the country. A new $200 million Afghan Defense University (ADU) is under construction near the capital.
The police are being trained by NATO countries through the Afghanistan Police Program. According to a 2009 news report, a large proportion of police officers are illiterate and are accused of demanding bribes. Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of NATO Training Mission Afghanistan and Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan, stated that the literacy rate in the ANP will rise to over 50% by January 2012. What began as a voluntary literacy program became mandatory
Source: http://article.wn.com/view/2012/07/14/Suicide_bomber_kills_23_at_Afghan_wedding_d/
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